1. Climate change refers to long-term shifts in global weather patterns and average temperatures. While the Earth's climate has naturally varied throughout its history, the current rate of warming is unprecedented and largely attributed to human activities, particularly the emission of greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels. The effects of climate change are wide-ranging and include rising sea levels, more frequent and severe weather events, changes in precipitation patterns, and impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity. Addressing climate change requires both mitigation strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adaptation measures to cope with the changes already underway. According to the passage, what distinguishes the current climate change from historical climate variations?

2. The "butterfly effect" is a concept in chaos theory that suggests that small changes in initial conditions can lead to large-scale and unpredictable consequences in complex systems. The term comes from the metaphorical example of a butterfly flapping its wings in Brazil causing a tornado in Texas. This concept highlights the sensitivity of complex systems to initial conditions and the difficulty in making long-term predictions in such systems. The butterfly effect has implications in various fields, including weather forecasting, economics, and social systems. What does the butterfly effect primarily illustrate about complex systems?

3. The "Dunning-Kruger effect" is a cognitive bias in which people with limited knowledge or competence in a given intellectual or social domain greatly overestimate their own knowledge or competence in that domain. Conversely, highly skilled individuals tend to underestimate their abilities relative to others. This effect is related to the cognitive bias of illusory superiority and comes from people's inability to recognize their lack of ability. As described by social psychologists David Dunning and Justin Kruger, this bias results from an internal illusion in people of low ability and from an external misperception in people of high ability. According to the passage, how does the Dunning-Kruger effect typically manifest in people with limited knowledge?

4. The "Streisand effect" is a phenomenon whereby an attempt to hide, remove, or censor a piece of information has the unintended consequence of publicizing the information more widely, usually facilitated by the Internet. It is an example of psychological reactance, where people react to threats to their behavioral freedoms by becoming more likely to engage in the restricted behavior. The effect is named after American entertainer Barbra Streisand, whose 2003 attempt to suppress photographs of her residence in Malibu, California, inadvertently drew further public attention to it. Attempts to suppress information are often counterproductive, especially in the Internet age, as the information becomes more widely available and more widely known than it would have been without the attempted censorship. What does the Streisand effect primarily illustrate?

5. Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. This capacity allows the brain to compensate for injury and disease and to adjust its activities in response to new situations or changes in the environment. Neuroplasticity is the basis for brain development in early childhood and continues to be important for learning, memory, and recovery from brain damage throughout adulthood. Recent research has shown that various activities, such as learning a new skill, meditation, and physical exercise, can promote neuroplasticity. This understanding has important implications for education, rehabilitation after brain injury, and the treatment of neurological disorders. What does the concept of neuroplasticity suggest about the human brain?

6. Quantum computing is an emerging technology that harnesses the principles of quantum mechanics to process information. Unlike classical computers that use bits (0s and 1s), quantum computers use quantum bits or qubits, which can exist in multiple states simultaneously due to a phenomenon called superposition. This property, along with quantum entanglement, allows quantum computers to perform certain calculations exponentially faster than classical computers. While still in its early stages, quantum computing has the potential to revolutionize fields such as cryptography, drug discovery, and complex system modeling. However, significant challenges remain in scaling up quantum systems and maintaining their delicate quantum states. What is a key difference between quantum computers and classical computers, according to the passage?

7. Climate change refers to long-term shifts in global weather patterns and average temperatures. While the Earth's climate has naturally varied throughout its history, the current rate of change is unprecedented and largely attributed to human activities, particularly the emission of greenhouse gases. The effects of climate change include rising sea levels, more frequent extreme weather events, and disruptions to ecosystems. What does the passage suggest is unique about the current climate change?

8. The concept of neuroplasticity challenges the old notion that the brain becomes fixed after early childhood. Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. This ability allows the brain to compensate for injury and disease and to adjust its activities in response to new situations or changes in the environment. Recent research has shown that many aspects of the brain remain plastic even into adulthood, suggesting that it's never too late to learn new skills or recover from brain injury. What is the main idea conveyed by this passage about neuroplasticity?

9. The theory of plate tectonics states that the Earth's outer shell is divided into several plates that glide over the mantle, the rocky inner layer above the core. This theory explains many geological phenomena, including the formation of mountains, the occurrence of earthquakes, and the distribution of fossils across continents that are now widely separated. The movement of these plates is driven by convection currents in the mantle and can cause plates to collide, pull apart, or slide past each other. According to the passage, what is the primary driver of plate movement?

10. Cognitive biases are systematic errors in thinking that affect the decisions and judgments that people make. These biases are often a result of our brain's attempt to simplify information processing. They can be caused by memory errors, social pressures, and mental shortcuts (heuristics). While cognitive biases can sometimes be adaptive and help us make quick decisions, they can also lead to poor choices and irrational behavior. Awareness of these biases is the first step in mitigating their effects on our decision-making processes. What is the main point of this passage?