1. The theory of plate tectonics states that the Earth's outer shell is divided into several plates that glide over the mantle, the rocky inner layer above the core. This theory, developed in the 1960s, explains many geological phenomena, including the formation of mountains, the occurrence of earthquakes and volcanoes, and the distribution of fossils across continents that are now widely separated. The movement of these plates is driven by convection currents in the mantle and can cause plates to collide, pull apart, or slide past each other. Plate tectonics has revolutionized our understanding of the Earth's geological processes and continues to be a fundamental concept in Earth sciences. According to the passage, what drives the movement of tectonic plates?

2. The theory of evolution by natural selection, first proposed by Charles Darwin, explains how species change over time. According to this theory, individuals with heritable traits that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing these advantageous traits to their offspring. Over many generations, this process can lead to significant changes in a population, potentially resulting in the formation of new species. Evidence for evolution comes from various sources, including the fossil record, comparative anatomy, and genetic studies. Despite being widely accepted in the scientific community, the theory of evolution remains controversial in some social and religious contexts. What is the primary mechanism of evolution described in this passage?

3. The "Pygmalion effect," also known as the "Rosenthal effect," is a psychological phenomenon wherein high expectations lead to improved performance. The effect is named after the Greek myth of Pygmalion, a sculptor who fell in love with a statue he had carved. In educational settings, the Pygmalion effect suggests that teachers' expectations of their students can become self-fulfilling prophecies. If a teacher believes a student is bright, they may unconsciously give the student more opportunities to succeed, leading to improved performance. Conversely, low expectations may result in poorer performance, a phenomenon sometimes called the "Golem effect." This effect highlights the power of expectations and the importance of positive reinforcement in education and other areas of life. What is the main idea of the Pygmalion effect as described in this passage?

4. The concept of emotional intelligence, popularized by psychologist Daniel Goleman, refers to the ability to recognize, understand, and manage our own emotions, as well as the emotions of others. It encompasses skills such as self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills. Proponents argue that emotional intelligence is as important as, if not more important than, traditional measures of intelligence in determining success in personal and professional life. However, some critics question the scientific validity of the concept and its measurement. According to this passage, which of the following is NOT a component of emotional intelligence?

5. The human immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to defend the body against harmful pathogens. It can be divided into two main parts: the innate immune system, which provides a general defense against pathogens, and the adaptive immune system, which produces antibodies to fight specific invaders. The adaptive immune system also has a "memory," allowing it to respond more quickly to pathogens it has encountered before. According to the passage, what is a key feature of the adaptive immune system?

6. The Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 18th century, marked a major turning point in Earth's ecology and humans' relationship with their environment. The onset of industrialization, coupled with the growing use of fossil fuels and the large-scale extraction of mineral resources, has led to a sustained period of pollution, environmental degradation, and social change. Which of the following best summarizes the main idea of this passage?

7. The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth's surface. When the Sun's energy reaches the Earth's atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases. These gases, including carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor, trap heat in the atmosphere, much like the glass walls of a greenhouse. This natural greenhouse effect makes the Earth warm enough to support life. However, human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, have increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to an enhanced greenhouse effect and global warming. Understanding the greenhouse effect is crucial for addressing climate change and its impacts. What is the primary cause of the enhanced greenhouse effect, according to the passage?

8. Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal power, are alternatives to fossil fuels that can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate change. These energy sources are replenished naturally and can provide a sustainable solution to growing global energy demands. However, the widespread adoption of renewable energy faces challenges, including intermittency issues, high initial costs, and the need for energy storage solutions. Despite these challenges, many countries are setting ambitious targets for renewable energy adoption as part of their efforts to combat climate change. Based on this passage, what is a key advantage of renewable energy sources?

9. The concept of sustainable development aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. This approach balances economic growth, environmental protection, and social equity. It recognizes that economic progress often comes at the expense of the environment and seeks to find ways to advance human well-being while preserving natural resources and ecosystems. What is the primary goal of sustainable development according to this passage?

10. The Great Barrier Reef, located off the coast of Australia, is the world's largest coral reef system. It is composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2,300 kilometers. The reef is home to a diverse array of marine life and is visible from outer space. However, climate change and ocean acidification pose significant threats to its survival. What is the primary purpose of this passage?