1. The "sunk cost fallacy" is a cognitive bias that causes people to continue a behavior or endeavor as a result of previously invested resources (time, money, effort). This fallacy, which is related to loss aversion and status quo bias, can cause people to "throw good money after bad" or continue to invest in a losing proposition. The sunk cost fallacy is often illustrated by the phrase "in for a penny, in for a pound." This bias can lead to poor decision-making in business, personal finance, and other areas of life where resources are limited and must be allocated carefully. Based on this passage, what is the primary driver of the sunk cost fallacy?

2. Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and thinking. Much of the work derived from cognitive psychology has been integrated into various other modern disciplines of psychological study, including social psychology, personality psychology, abnormal psychology, developmental psychology, and educational psychology. What is the main focus of cognitive psychology, according to the passage?

3. The concept of sustainable development aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. This approach balances economic growth, environmental protection, and social equity. Sustainable practices can be applied in various sectors, including energy production, agriculture, and urban planning. However, implementing sustainable development on a global scale faces challenges such as conflicting economic interests and differing priorities among nations. What is the main challenge to sustainable development mentioned in this passage?

4. The Renaissance, which literally means "rebirth," was a cultural movement that began in Italy in the late 14th century and spread throughout Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries. This period marked the rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature, and art. During the Renaissance, there was a renewed interest in the individual, a philosophy known as humanism. What was a key characteristic of the Renaissance, according to the passage?

5. The "placebo effect" is a phenomenon in which a placebo - a substance with no known medical effects - produces a beneficial result in a patient who takes it. The placebo effect is believed to occur due to the patient's expectations of benefit. This effect has been observed in numerous studies and can be quite powerful, sometimes rivaling the effects of active medications. The placebo effect demonstrates the importance of psychological factors in healing and has implications for medical research and treatment. Interestingly, studies have shown that placebos can work even when patients know they are receiving a placebo, a phenomenon known as the "open-label placebo effect." According to the passage, what is the primary cause of the placebo effect?

6. Climate change is causing sea levels to rise through two main mechanisms: thermal expansion of the oceans as they warm, and the melting of land-based ice such as glaciers and ice sheets. This rise in sea level poses a significant threat to coastal communities and low-lying islands around the world. Some regions are already experiencing increased flooding, erosion, and saltwater intrusion into freshwater systems. What can be inferred from this passage about the future impact of rising sea levels?

7. Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of the world's economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services, technology, and flows of investment, people, and information. While globalization has led to increased economic growth and cultural exchange, it has also been criticized for exacerbating inequality and eroding local cultures. What does the passage suggest is a potential negative consequence of globalization?

8. The "Dunbar's number" is a suggested cognitive limit to the number of people with whom one can maintain stable social relationships. These are relationships in which an individual knows who each person is and how each person relates to every other person. This number was first proposed by British anthropologist Robin Dunbar, who found a correlation between primate brain size and average social group size. By using the average human brain size and extrapolating from the results of primates, he proposed that humans can comfortably maintain only 150 stable relationships. Dunbar theorized that "this limit is a direct function of relative neocortex size, and that this in turn limits group size ... the limit imposed by neocortical processing capacity is simply on the number of individuals with whom a stable inter-personal relationship can be maintained." According to the passage, what does Dunbar's number primarily represent?

9. The Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 18th century, marked a major turning point in Earth's ecology and humans' relationship with their environment. The onset of industrialization, coupled with the growing use of fossil fuels and the large-scale extraction of mineral resources, has led to a sustained period of pollution, environmental degradation, and social change. Which of the following best summarizes the main idea of this passage?

10. The Silk Road was an ancient network of trade routes connecting the East and West, primarily between China and the Mediterranean region. It was central to cultural interaction between these regions for many centuries. The Silk Road derived its name from the lucrative trade in silk originating in China, but many other goods were traded as well, and religions, philosophies, technologies, and diseases also spread along these routes. The Silk Road's importance began to decline in the 13th and 14th centuries due to the growth of maritime trade routes. What was the primary significance of the Silk Road according to this passage?